Aluminum-Alzheimer's link
Date: Sun, 20 Apr 2003 14:45:39 -0400

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_12359.html

Aluminum in Drinking Water Tied to Alzheimer's

Reuters Health
By Jacqueline Stenson
Monday, April 14, 2003

SAN DIEGO (Reuters Health) - Adding support to a controversial theory
linking aluminum with Alzheimer's disease, new research indicates the
disease is more common in regions of northwest Italy where levels of
aluminum in drinking water are highest.

And when the investigators studied the effects of one form of the metal on
two types of human cells in the lab, they found it hastened cell death.

"We were absolutely surprised by these results," said study author Dr.
Paolo Prolo, a researcher at the University of California at Los Angeles.
"I did not expect any effect from aluminum."

In findings released here Monday at the annual Experimental Biology
meeting, Prolo and colleagues focused on monomeric -- single molecule --
aluminum. This is the type that can be most easily absorbed by human cells,
he said.

While there have been suggestions that aluminum cookware might pose a risk
for Alzheimer's, the type of aluminum used in pots and pans consists of
multiple molecules and does not appear to affect human cells, according to
Prolo. "There is almost no evidence that the cookware is dangerous," he said.

When the researchers tested water in regions of northwest Italy in 1998,
they found that total aluminum levels -- including monomeric and other
types of aluminum -- ranged from 5 to 1,220 micrograms per liter, while
monomeric aluminum levels alone ranged from 5 to 300 micrograms per liter.

Environmental officials generally recommended that total aluminum levels be
below 200 micrograms per liter, Prolo noted.

After comparing this data to death rates from Alzheimer's in those regions,
the researchers found that the disease was more common in areas with the
highest levels of monomeric aluminum.

Back in the lab, Prolo and colleagues then tested the effects of monomeric
aluminum on human immune-system cells and bone cancer cells. Ideally, human
brain cells would be tested but these are not readily available because a
biopsy of a patient's brain is necessary to acquire them, he said.

"We found that a very low quantity of aluminum added to our cell cultures
was modifying cellular processes" like normal cell death, Prolo told
Reuters Health.

When the aluminum was paired with beta-amyloid, a protein found in the
brains of Alzheimer's patients, the combination killed off even more cells.

Because aluminum could kill both types of human cells, these findings raise
the question of whether aluminum is potentially involved in
other diseases, Prolo said.

But much more research is needed to understand how the metal does or does
not affect people, he added.

Related News:

* More
> news on Alzheimer's Disease

Related MEDLINEplus Pages:

* Alzheimer's
Disease

* Drinking
Water

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http://www.healthwell.com/hnbreakthroughs/mar98/aluminum.cfm April 19, 2003
Can Aluminum Cause Alzheimer's Disease? by Melvyn R. Werbach, M.D.


Senile dementia is a progressive degenerative brain disease associated with
old age. Its symptoms include short-term memory loss, slowness in thought
and movement, confusion, disorientation, depression, difficulty
communicating, and loss of physical function. Alzheimer's disease accounts
for about half of all senile dementia cases. Although there are many
theories about what causes Alzheimer's, the fact is, its origins remain
poorly understood.

One theory proposed that the common occurrence of being exposed to aluminum
could cause Alzheimer's dementia. Aluminum, the theory postulated, becomes
concentrated in the characteristic lesions (senile plaques and
neurofibrillary tangles) that develop in the brain during the course of the
disease. At first, medical scientists thought this theory was absurd.
Aluminum, they believed, accumulated merely as a result of a destructive
process caused by some other factor.

In recent years, however, the aluminum hypothesis has been gaining respect.
For example, studies have discovered a direct association between the level
of aluminum in municipal drinking water and the risk of Alzheimer's
dementia. One study found aluminum in drinking water was related to only
this specific type of dementia;1 another found that the probability of the
association being due to chance was only 1 in 24, with a 46 percent
increased risk for people drinking water with the highest aluminum levels.2

The use of aluminum-containing antiperspirants--but not the use of
antiperspirants and deodorants in general--has also been associated with a
risk of Alzheimer's dementia, with a trend toward a higher risk
corresponding with increasing frequency of use.3 This relationship does not
extend to aluminum-containing antacids,4 which may simply be evidence that
the aluminum in antacids is not absorbed--the process of absorption through
the gut mucosa is quite different from absorption through the skin.

We also know that serum aluminum concentrations increase with age. Aluminum
may accumulate slowly over our lifetimes or we may absorb it more easily as
we age. Moreover, there is evidence that people with probable Alzheimer's
disease have serum aluminum levels that are often significantly higher than
those of people with other types of dementia, as well healthy people of
similar ages.5

Further evidence that aluminum fosters the development of Alzheimer's
dementia comes from a scientific (placebo-controlled) trial of
desferrioxamine, a drug that removes aluminum from the body by binding with
it. While regular administration of the drug failed to stop the disease
from progressing, desferrioxamine did significantly reduce the rate of
decline in the ability of a group of people with Alzheimer's dementia to
care for themselves.6

Although the aluminum/Alzheimer's link remains unproven, I believe that
waiting for definitive proof before taking a few easy and protective
measures is foolhardy--and more scientists are starting to agree.7,8
Perhaps one person in 10 age 65 or older suffers from dementia; by age 80
that figure rises to one in five. This is too common an illness to ignore
preventive measures until we can know for certain why it develops.

Ways To Avoid Aluminum Here are my suggestions for minimizing your exposure
to aluminum.

* Drinking water should be low in aluminum. Some bottled-water companies
provide an analysis of the aluminum content of their water. You might also
find out from your public water company what the aluminum level is in the
local drinking water.

* Aluminum-containing antiperspirants can easily be avoided, as can
aluminum utensils and even, to play it safe, aluminum-containing antacids.

* Commercially processed foods such as cake and pancake mixes, frozen
doughs and self-rising flour are sources of dietary aluminum, so their
ingestion should be minimized. Watch for and avoid sodium aluminum
phosphate, an ingredient in baking powder. Pickles and cheese should also
be avoided.

* There is a close relationship between silicon and aluminum in Alzheimer
brain lesions, as the two substances bind together to form
aluminosilicates.9 High levels of silica in drinking water in the form of
silicic acid do seem to protect against the adverse effects of aluminum
ingestion, and silicic acid ingestion increases urinary aluminum
excretion.10,11 Whether silica supplements protect against the development
of dementia has yet to be determined.

* Besides minimizing aluminum exposure, taking the Recommended Dietary
Allowance (RDA) of calcium, magnesium and zinc should help to protect
against aluminum accumulation.12-14 Deficiencies of these important
minerals are common among the elderly.15 Yet, unless there is laboratory
evidence of a zinc deficiency, I would not recommend zinc supplementation
to help prevent Alzheimer's disease, for two reasons. First, beta-amyloid
protein, the major substance found in the brain lesions (usually in a
liquid form), binds with zinc. At concentrations only slightly higher than
those normally found in the brain, excess zinc may convert the protein to
the solid form that is found in Alzheimer lesions.16 This suggests that, at
least in theory, excess zinc could actually promote the development of the
disease. Second, there is a lack of adequate research demonstrating the
efficacy of zinc supplementation in preventing Alzheimer's, although in one
study all six relatively young dementia victims had some memory improvement
following supplementation with zinc aspartate.17

References
1. Martyn, C.N., et al. Lancet, 1: 59-62, 1989.

2. Neri, L.C., & Hewitt, D. Letter. Lancet, 338: 390, 1991.

3. Graves, A.B., et al. J Clin Epidemio,l 43(1): 35-44, 1990.

4. Ibid.

5. Zapatero, M.D. Biol Trace Elem Res, 47: 235-40, 1995.

6. McLachlan, D.R., et al. Lancet, 337: 1304-8, 1991.

7. Lukiw, W.J. Mineral and Metal Neurotoxicology. 113-26. CRC Press, 1997.

8. McLachlan, D.R., et al. Can Med Assoc J, 145(7): 793-804, 1991.

9. Candy, J.M., et al. Lancet, i: 354-57, 1986.

10. Jacqmin-Gadda, H., et al. Epidemiology 7(3): 281-85, 1996.

11. Bellia, J.P., et al. Ann Clin Lab Sci, 26: 227-33, 1996.

12. Foster, H.D. Health, Disease and the Environment. 311-16. Boca Raton,
Fla.: CRC Press, 1992:

13. Durlach, J. Magnes Res, 3(3): 217-18, 1990.

14. Wenk, G.L., & Stemmer, K.L. Brain Res 288: 393-95, 1983.

15. Werbach, M.R. Foundations of Nutritional Medicine: Common nutritional
deficiencies. Tarzana, Calif.: Third Line Press, 1997.

16. Bush, A.I., et al. Science, 265: 1464-67, 1994.

17. Constantinidis, J. Schweiz Arch Neurol Neurochir Psychiatr, 141(6):
523-56, 1990.

Melvyn R. Werbach, M.D., is a faculty member at the UCLA School of Medicine
and the author of Nutritional Influences on Illness (Third Line Press Inc.,
1993).

--


http://www.bio.unipd.it/~zatta/alumin.htm

CNR NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF ITALY
INSTITUTE FOR BIOMEDICAL TECHNOLOGIES
Padova Unit "Metalloproteins" University of Padova Department of Biology
Via G. Colombo 3, 35121 Padova, Italy


An International Aluminum Network was established in 1995 open to all
scientists interested to a better understanding of the aluminum impact on
biological systems from different point of views: Physiological,
Pathological, Toxicological, Biochemical in humans as well as in vitro and
in vivo experimentation.


This network is devoted to exchanging proposals and scientific data
(relevant papers, experimental data etc.) as well as to inform on various
activities around the world: workshops, round tables, symposia etc. where
relevant issues on Chemistry or Biology related to the Physiopathology of
aluminum could be discussed.


Besides, being the most abundant metal and the third most abundant element
on the Earth's crust, aluminum has been implicated as an etiological factor
in some pathologies related to long-term dialysis treatment of uremic
patients and as a potential factor or cofactor in the Alzheimer's syndrome,
as well as in the etiopathogenesis of other neurodegenerative diseases,
Parkinsonism, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and other diseases.

Al(III) SPECIATION


Tamas Kiss
ALUMINUM
DETERMINATION IN BIOLOGICAL
SPECIMENS

Andrew Taylor

ALUMINUM WITH SILICIC ACID

Christopher Exley

TRANSFERRIN AS A METAL ION CARRIER

Peter Sadler and Hongyan Li

BINDING SPECIFICITY OF ANTI-ALUMINUM ANTIBODIES

R. Levy and B. Solomon

ALUMINIUM AND THE NEURONAL GLUTAMATE-NITRIC OXIDE-CYCLIC GMP PATHWAY

Vicente Felipo

ALUMINUM AND GENE EXPRESSION

Walter J. Lukiw

ALUMINUM AND NEUROFILAMENT ASSEMBLY

Thomas B. Shea

ALUMINUM INDUCED ALTERATIONS IN THE NEURONAL CYTOSKELETON

Nancy Muma

Al(III)AND FREE RADICALS

Patricia I. Oteiza

EFFECT OF IRON STATUS ON ALUMINIUM SPECIATION, ABSORPTION AND DISTRIBUTION

Christian Steinhausen

ALUMINUM AND HEPATOPOIETIC SYSTEM

Khalequz Zaman

INTERACTIONS OF ALUMINUM WITH NEURONAL PLASTICITY, SYNAPTIC TRASMISSION AND
MEMBRANE PORES

Dietrich Busselberg and Bettina Platt

PROCESS OF ACCUMULATION OF ALUMINIUM IN HUMAN BRAIN

Satoshi Tokutake

ALUMINUM AND ALZHEIMER'S
AMYLOID BETA-PROTEIN

Masahiro Kawahara
ALUMINUM AND BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
PERMEABILITY

William A. Banks
NEUROFIBRILLARY PATHOLOGY AND ALUMINUM IN ALZHEIMER'S
DISEASE

J. Q. Trojanowski
Ryong-Woon Shin
ALUMINUM AND THE PRECURSOR PROTEIN OF THE NON-A COMPONENT OF ALZHEIMER'S
DISEASE AMYLOID (NACP)

Seung R. Paik and Ju-hyun Lee

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First International Conference on METALS AND THE BRAIN: From Neurochemistry
to Neurodegeneration (University of Padova, Italy: 20-23 September 2000)
_____

ALUMINUM AND HEALTH

RECOMMENDATIONS

Aluminum is an environmentally abundant element to which we are all
exposed. The neurotoxicity of this metal has been known for more than a
century. More recently, it has been implicated as an etiological factor in
some pathologies (including encephalopathy, bone disease, anemia) related
to dialysis treatment . In addition, it has been hypothesized to be a
cofactor in the etiopathogenesis of some neurodegenerative diseases,
including Alzheimer's disease (AD), although, despite many studies in
several laboratories in different countries, direct evidence is still, so
far controversial. Thus, examples of aluminum neurotoxicity are well
recognized-in experimental animals and in individuals with renal failure
(consequent upon aging, intoxication or renal disease) - and there are
grounds to link neurodegenerative disorders to aluminum exposure.
Furthermore, an increased concentration of Al in infant formulas and in
solutions for home parenteral nutrition has been associated with
neurological consequences and metabolic bone disease, characterized by
low-bone formation rate, respectively.

For all these reasons and on the basis of our many years of scientific
experience in this field, we propose the following recommendations as
guidelines to avoid risks due to aluminum accumulation and potential
intoxication. These recommendations are not rigid and will be updated when
relevant new scientific data is available.

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

1.
It would be valuable to define as completely as possible which patient
groups are at risk for iatrogenic aluminum loading, and under which
conditions aluminum represents a health hazard. The more complete knowledge
we have for the clinical, iatrogenic setting, the better basis we will have
to judge whether different types of aluminum exposure are hazardous to the
general population or to susceptible subgroups.

2.
A provisional list of patients groups at risk of iatrogenic aluminum
loading should include, at least, people with impaired renal function,
infants, old people and patients on total home parenteral nutrition. Where
such exposure occurs, serum aluminum concentrations should be less than 30
µg/l and possibly lower. However, further studies are necessary.

3.
Urinary aluminum is also an indicator of aluminum absorption, the excreted
Al/retained Al ratio depends on the integrity of the renal function.

4.
Al may enter human body by mouth, intravenous infusions and by environment.
Specific controls have to be adopted in order to reduce each risk of
exposure.


Oral exposure

5.
Aluminum in drinking water should be less than 50 µg L-1. Silicon is
relevant to aluminum toxicity and, therefore, the water silicon
concentrations should be monitored in parallel.

6.
The aluminum content should be declared in all food preparations and
pharmacological products.

7.
Citrate-containing compounds appear to increase the bioavailability of
ingested aluminum. Therefore, particular care should be taken to avoid
these compounds in combination with Al-containing drugs. With citric acid,
the enhanced gastrointestinal absorption may by compensated for by a
parallel increase in urinary Al excretion, where there is good renal
function. However, it is strongly suspected from recent simulation studies
that other dietary acids (e.g., succinic and tartaric acids) also increase
Al-bioavailability but do not cause any compensatory increase in urinary
excretion. Ascorbate and lactate also significantly enhance
gastrointestinal absorption of Al, as was recently demonstrated in animal
studies.

8.
It is recommended that acidic food, e.g., acid cabbage, tomato, etc. should
not be cooked or stored in aluminum ware. In this connection, it has been
demonstrated that in the juice of acidic cabbage, cooked in aluminum, the
metal ion content is up to 20 mg/ L.

9.
Individual susceptibility to aluminum has been reported by the scientific
literature. Thus, special efforts should be taken to prevent contamination
of food and beverages etc. with aluminum either directly or during
preparation, with special regard to infants, old people or individuals with
suboptimal renal functionality.

10.
Magnesium depletion is considered a high risk for aluminum accumulation
especially during pregnancy and in the neonate with possible consequent
problems for normal development and growth. Magnesium depletion is also
common with aging.

11.
Iron depletion is considered a high risk for aluminium accumulation, as
iron and Al share common carriers.


Parenteral exposure:

12.
Aluminum in all intravenous (i.v.) fluids should be controlled monitored
and labeled. There is a general consensus that the aluminum content of i.v.
fluids used in children and adults with renal failure or undergoing
dialysis, should be as low as possible and in any case no higher than 10
µg/L.

13.
The use of parenteral nutrition fluids that are high in aluminum should be
eliminated or significantly reduced.


...

CONTRIBUTORS (Provisional list)


*
P. Zatta, CNR Center on Metalloproteins. University of Padova, Italy.
Coordinator of the Project: Interdisciplinary Approach to The Study of
Aluminum Toxicity. E.C.COST D8 "Metals in Medicine".

* C. Canavese, (On the behalf of the Italian Nephrological Society) Le
Molinette Hospital, Torino, Italy.

* S. Costantini, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italy.

* M. Gallieni, Dept. of Nephrology, San Paolo Hospital, University of
Milano, Italy.

*
M. Andriani, +Chief Nephrologist, Dolo General Hospital, Venice, Italy (On
the behalf of the SIN-Italian Nephrological Society).

* G. Berthon, CNRS FR1744, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France.

* D. Boggio - Bertinet, on the behalf of the Italian Society of Parenteral
and Enteral Nutrition

* J. Domingo, Faculty of Medicine, Rovira I Virgili University, Reus, Spain.

* T. Flaten, Dept. of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, Trondheim, Norway.

* M. Golub, Dept. Internal medicine. University of California, Davis, USA.

*
N. Goto, Laboratory of General Toxicology, Dept. Safety Research on
Biologics, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan.

* M. Kawahara, Metropolitan Institute for Neuroscience, Tokyo, Japan.

* T. Kiss, Dept. of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of
Szeged, Hungary.

* W. Lukiw, LSU Neuroscience Center, New Orleans, LA, USA.

*
W. Markesbery, University of Kentucky Alzheimer's Disease Research Center,
Lexington, KY, USA.

* R. Milacic, Josef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.

*
C. Ronco, Director of the Renal Research Laboratory, Beth Israel Med. Ctr,
New York, NY, USA.

*
H.H. Sandstead, University of Texas, Med. Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.

*
A. Taylor, Center for Clinical Sciences and Measurement, School of
Biological Sciences, University of Surrey, Guilford, U.K.


This document will be published in relevant scientific journals, and will
be sent to all Health Ministers of the European Community as well as to
other Public Health Authorities. (FDA, WHO etc.). For further information,
please contact Prof. P. Zatta: zatta@civ.bio.unipd.it


Padova 20-23 September 2000

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ALZHEIMERS/ALUMINUM STUDIES
YEAR HEAD INVESTIGATOR AFFILIATED INSTITUTION FINDINGS

1965 Klatzo NIH Injection of animal salts produced changes in the animal
brains. J.Neuropathol Exp Neurol 24:187-199, 1965.
1970 Wisniewski Einstein Medical Center Changes in animal brains different
from those in Alzheimer's Disease. J.Neuropathol Exp Neurol 29: 163-176,
1970.
1973 McLachlan University of Toronto Brains of Alzheimer's Disease victims
have higher Aluminum content.
1976 Alfrey Denver V.A. Hospital Dialysis dementia attributed to Aluminum.
NEngl J Med 294: 184-188, 1976.
1979 Ellis University of Sheffield Aluminum affects bones of dialysis
patients
1980 Perl University of Vermont Aluminum in Alzheimer's Disease "tangles"
in brain. Science 208: 297-299, 1980; Neurotoxicoloy 1: 133-137, 1980.
1981 Markesbery University of Kentucky Aluminum not elevated in Alzheimer's
Disease brains. Ann Neurol 10: 511-516, 1981
1982 Perl University of Vermont ALS and Parkinson dementia on Guam
associated with Aluminum. Science 217: 1053-1055, 1982.
1985 Greger University of Wisconsin Metallic Aluminum contributes very
little to dietary intake
1986 Edwardson Newcastle General Hospital Aluminum in core of senile
patient plaques 1986 Drezner Duke University Aluminum may not cause bone
disease
1987 Perl Mt.Sinai Hospital Route of entry of Aluminum into body may be
inhalation. Lancet1987: 1028
1988 Wisniewski N.Y. State Institute for Basic Research Aluminum not found
in cores of senile patient plaques
1989 Martyn University of Southhampton Frequency of Alzheimer's Disease
related to Aluminum in drinking water
1990 McLachlan University of Toronto Loss of cognitive function from
exposure to McIntyre powder
1990 McLachlan University of Toronto Aluminum can be chemically extracted
from brains of Alzheimer's Disease patients, clinical results being evaluated

B.Ghetti and O Bugiani. "Aluminum's Disease" and Alzheimer's Disease.
Indiana Medical Center, Department of Pathology

Z. S. Khachaturian. Aluminum Toxicity Among Other Views on the Etiology of
Alzheimer's Disease. Office of Alzheimer Disease Research, National
Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD.

Jay W. Pettegrew. Aluminum and Alzheimer's Disease: An Evolving
Understanding. Neurophysics Laboratory, University of Pittsburg, School of
Medicine.

Richard S. Jope. Aluminum Toxicity: Transport and Sites of Action.
Department of Pharmacology and euroscience Program, University of Alabama.

Allen C. Alfrey. Systemic Toxicity of Aluminum in Man. Renal Section,
Denver Veterans Administration Hospital.

Daniel P Perl. The Aluminum Hypothesis of Alzheimer's Disease: A Personal
View Based on Microprobe Analysis. Neuropathology Division, Mount Sinai
Medical Center NY.

S.S. Krishnan, D.R. McLachlan, B. Krishnan, S.S.A. Fenton, and J.E.
Harrison. Aluminum Toxicity to the Brain Toronto General Hospital and
Departments of Physiology and Medicine, University of Toronto. Copyright
1988. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. Reprint requests: S.S. Krishnan,
Toronto General Hospital, Medical Physical Department, Room ccrw-g-803, 200
Elizabeth Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

G. M. Zemansky, Ph.D Aluminum in Drinking Water , an assessment document.
Scientific/Technical Section, Illinois Pollution Control Board, Nov. 12,
1985.

S.G. Epstein, 1984, Aluminum in nature, in the body, and it's relationship
to human health. In: Trace Substances in Environmental Health - XVIII.
Proceeding of thew 18th Annual Conference on Enviromantal Health held at
the University of Missouri, June 4-7, 1984, D.D. Hemphill, ed., University
Of Missouri, Columbia, MO pp. 139-148.

USEPA, 1985, Proposed Phase I and II recommended maximum contaminant levels
under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Office of Drinking Water USEPA,
Washington, D.C., pp. 119 - 121a.

D.R. Crapper and U. DeBoni. 1980, Aluminum. In: Experimental and Clinical
Neurotoxicology. P. S. Spencer and H.H. Schaumburg, eds., Williams and
Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. pp. 326 - 335.

Yoshimasu, F., M. Yasui, H. Yoshida, S. Yoshida, Y. Lebayashi, Y. Yase,
D.C. Gajdusek, K.I.M. Chen. Aluminum in Alzheimer's disease in Japan and
Parkinsonism dementia in Guam. XII World Congress of Neurology - 1985.
(Abstr 15.07.02).

Aluminum - Journal Articles

Campbell, A; Bondy, S. Aluminum induced oxidative events and its relation
to inflammation: a role for the metal in Alzheimer's disease. Cellular and
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Christen, Y. Oxidative stress and Alzheimer disease. American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. February 2000; vol. 71(2), pp. 621S-629S.

Crapper-McLachlan, D; Dalton, A; Kruck, T; et al. Intramuscular
desferrioxamine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Lancet. August 3,
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Flaten, T. Aluminum as a risk factor in Alzheimer's disease, with an
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55(2), pp. 187-196.

Forbes, W; Hill, G. Is exposure to aluminum a risk factor for the
development of Alzheimer disease?--Yes. Archives of Neurology. May 1998;
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Gauthier, E; Fortier, I; Courchesne, F; et al. Aluminum forms in drinking
water and risk of Alzheimer's disease. Environmental Research. November
2000; vol. 84(3), pp. 234-246.

Good, P; Perl, D; Bierer, L; et al. Selective accumulation of aluminum and
iron in the neurofibrillary tangles of Alzheimer's disease: a laser
microprobe (LAMMA) study. Annals of Neurology. March 1992; vol. 31(3), pp.
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Graves, A; Rosner, D; Echeverria, D; et al. Occupational exposures to
solvents and aluminum and estimated risk of Alzheimer's disease.
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Hachinski, V. Aluminum exposure and risk of Alzheimer disease. Archives of
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Jansson, E. Aluminum exposure and Alzheimer disease. Journal of Alzheimer's
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Lovell, M; Ehmann, W; Markesbery W; et al. Standardization in biological
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Rao, J; Katsetos, C; Herman, M; et al. Experimental aluminum
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aluminum concentrations in drinking water and Alzheimer's disease: an
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48(6), pp. 667-684.

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For more information on Alzheimer's Disease (AD) see:

* Alzheimer's Disease Education and Referral (ADEAR)

http://www.alzheimers.org/index.html

* Alzheimer's Association